Critical review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Critical review - Essay Example ..9 Limitations of Stress Management skills†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.11 Skill Assessment and Monitoring†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..12 Sustainability and Skill Maintenance†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.12 Conclusion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.12 References†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...14 Critical Review on Stress Management Executive summary This study gives a critical review and analysis of stress management skills. It is majorly based on the main importance of the skill and their manifestation and impact in real life situation in the day-to-day life experience. It also reflects on a scrutiny of the difficulties and factors that impact on the skill negatively. Availability of sufficient research materials, the analysis will provide information that is reliable and educative in its manner of application. One, at the end of reading this report, should be able to appreciate stress management skills in a wider perspective ranging from the specific skills effectiveness in their application. This should also be relatively counterchecked with other skills learnt in the management course. Analysis of stress management skills as per this study should be able to inform the reader on the ap plicability of the technique. The reader, at the end of the reading, will be able to make necessary step in his or her daily undertaking to ensure that the right precaution and application of the skill is made to curb the problem. The kills as analyzed in the report should equip the reader with relevant causes of stress that are recurrent and hence ways of curbing them formulated. In management generally the report will point out clearly on the need to manage stress as it affect organizations negatively at all levels where it is manifested. The skills analyzed in the report, therefore, will help the reader to make improvement in how he or she carries out the management. Introduction Stress management skills are applicable widely. This report gives a clear outlook of the skills and their relevance. By thorough checking of the issues, the disadvantages should be noted so that the analysis of skills is effectively done to cover the required scope. These skills vary in their application perspective or context. The management of stress â€Å"per se† involves procedural approach that requires a plan of action. A combination of findings from various research work on the same is critical in coming up with a workable solution to stress in an organization. With this written document, the reader will be entitled to development of various skills in managing stress. However, the modification and advancement of the document can be done to make improvement on the report through reading and referring from various related sources. In so doing, the reader will appreciate the scope and coverage of this report with its concordance to applicability in

Economics for Business and Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 1

Economics for Business and Management - Essay Example At price P2, buyers are willing to buy thus creating excess demand in the market which in turn pushes the prices up to P where quantity demanded is equal to quantity supplied thus clearing the market. . Excess demand Fig. 1.0 Price Mechanism by Adams and Periton 2009 Resource Allocation The allocation of resources in a country is determined by the economic system in place. The pure market system has many sellers and buyers and sellers act as price takers. The consumers and producers act based on self interest and have perfect knowledge of the market conditions. The products sold are homogenous thus there is no non-price competition or control over market prices. Firms enter freely in the market and the factors of production are privately owned (Anderton, 2000). Profits act as a sign for producers to increase supply and in effect they employ the best combination of resources that can give them maximum profits (Myers, 2004). Low prices acts as a signal for consumers to buy. Lipsey and Chrystal (2007) argue that when demand is more than supply, the prices rises and falls when supply is more than demand. Allocation of resources is though supply and demand forces. The pure command market is run by one producer selling unique products. There is no competition hence the producer determines the price. The producer can decide whether to raise prices by decreasing the supply in the market or operate at supernormal profits. Entrance to the market is restricted by scarcity of resources, government regulations, and monopolist anti competitive behaviour. The consumer choice is restricted as the government provides what it deems fit for the population. The factors of production are owned by the state hence resource allocation is the duty of the state through a planning process (Anderton, 2000). Arguments in Favour of Free Market The free market economy is considered as the most efficient in allocation of resources. The welfare of the society is maximised when demand equals su pply or social marginal benefits equals social marginal costs (Gillespie, 2007). All individuals are driven by self interest and thus the consumers determine the demand for products, the sellers produce the goods to satisfy the demand driven by profit motive and thus combine factors of production in an efficient way to achieve the goal or be pushed out of the market. This results in low cost production and provision of high quality goods at a low price to the consumer. There are no barriers to entry in a free market thereby allowing competition between sellers. If the sellers earn abnormal profits, this acts as an incentive for competitors to enter the market thus sharing the profit and pushing the prices down (Baumol, 2002). As supply becomes more than demand and the many sellers have to attract customers by selling at low price since consumers are guided by the law of demand; the lower the price, the higher the demand. The consumers also have a variety of alternatives to choose fr om due to presence of many sellers. Baumol (2002) argues that a free market is engaged in a continuous process of innovation. Competition leads sellers to engage in research and development so as to come up with new ways of producing a product which are efficient and differentiate it from other competitors. This leads to innovations of technology and more advanced

Men Cheat On Partner For Sexual Reasons Psychology Essay

Men Cheat On Partner For Sexual Reasons Psychology Essay Abstract According to most of the literature available, men cheat on their partner for sexual reasons (Wilson, Mattingly, Clark, Weidler, 2011). The aim of this study is to gain an in-depth understanding of the reasons that lead men to cheat by taking a mens point of view. The sample consisted of six male participants who are in a committed relationship and who presumably never cheated. The participants were never asked whether they had cheated or not. Data collection consisted of semi-structured interviews, which were audio recorded. This data was then analyzed by Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. Findings showed that mens reasons why other men cheat on their partners are related to emotional justifications rather than sexual ones. Moreover most of the opportunities presented were thought to be found at the workplace, with certain employment positions thought to lead more to unfaithful relationships. Certain social interactions were though to lead towards infidelity. Furthermore all the participants believe that certain personality types are more likely to get involved in extra-dyadic relationships. Some limitations need to be acknowledged in this study. Findings might have been different if I have not interviewed men who come from similar educational backgrounds, Future research might want to consider the perspective of men who cheated. Keyword: infidelity, males perspective, emotional dissatisfaction, opportunities Dedication I would like to dedicate this dissertation to all the people who supported me throughout this process, especially to my family who always believed in me. Acknowledgements I would like to express my utmost gratitude to my supervisor Ms. Mary Ann Borg Cunen for her support and guidance in the course of my research. I would also like to thank all the participants for sharing their ideas and beliefs with me. Finally, my special gratitude goes to my family and my boyfriend for their love and support. Contents Abstract 3 Dedication 4 Acknowledgements 5 Chapter 1 8 Introduction 8 Rationale for the study 8 Motivation for the study 8 Background to the study 9 Objectives of the Study and Research Question 9 Chapters Overview 10 Chapter 2 11 Literature Review 11 Biological Perspective 11 Evolutionary Perspective 12 Social and Cultural Context 13 Attachment Theory 14 Parental- investment model 16 Relationship Infidelity and Personality Traits 16 Motivations for Infidelity 17 Dissatisfaction with Primary Relationship 18 Ego Bolstering 18 Education 19 Religious Affiliation 19 Types of Affairs 20 Gender Differences and Attitudes 21 Types of Infidelity 22 Conclusion 23 Chapter 3 24 Methodology 24 Research Design 24 Sample 25 Data Collection 25 Procedure 25 Research Instruments 26 Data Analysis 26 Ethical Considerations 27 Reliability and Validity 28 Conclusion 28 Chapter 4 29 Results and Discussion 29 Primary Relationship Dissatisfaction 29 Opportunity and Personality 32 Social interactions 36 Conclusion on the research findings 38 Chapter 5 40 Conclusion 40 Implications of the Research 40 Limitations of the study 41 Recommendations for Future Research 41 Conclusion 42 References 43 Appendix A 51 Appendix B 52 Appendix C 53 Mistoqsijiet 54 Appendix D 55 Appendix E 56 Appendix F 61 Chapter 1 Introduction Infidelity is defined as a severe interpersonal transgression in which one or both of the partners engage in extra dyadic relationship, going against the rules of monogamy and exclusivity (Drigotas, Safstrom, Gentillia, 1999). Researchers on infidelity identify two types of betrayal sexual or emotional. Sexual infidelity refers to the act of sexual activity with someone else other than ones partner, while emotional infidelity involves developing an emotional connection with another person apart from the committed partner (Wilson et al., 2011). Rationale for the study Research has been carried out to shed light on the motivations that lead men to extra dyadic relationships. A number of factors have been found, mainly depending on the relationship type and on factors related to the individual (Treas Giesen, 2000) However, other than the wish for sexual intercourse, I have not found a complete presentation of the reasons that lead men to infidelity. Given the lack of research about infidelity from a males point of view, I am interested in conducting this study to understand better a males perspective on the reasons that lead other men to cheat. Moreover, most of the past research has been carried out quantitatively, while I would like to obtain in-depth perspective through qualitative research. Motivation for the study The reason for choosing this research topic stems from a personal interest, as a close friend of mine has been cheated over by her husband. I became curious about the reasons that men give for their infidelity. I used to believe that men cheat mainly to satisfy their sexual desires. Thus, in view of this, I decided to research this topic further in order to understand a mans perspective about infidelity. Background to the study Infidelity is one of the most cited reasons for divorce. It is also the most damaging to the individual, since it may cause emotional distress (Wilson et al., 2011). The betrayed person may suffer harmful consequence, these affecting him both on a personal and relationship level (Boekhout, Hendrick Hendrick, 1999). Brown (1991) states that infidelity has always existed and will continue to exist. Even though the majority of couples disapprove of extramarital relationships, statistics indicate that there is a high percentage of married couples who engage in unfaithful relationships (20% to 40%) (Peluso Spina, 2008). Moreover, according to Brown (1991), affairs have little to do with sex. They are about fear and disappointment, anger and emptiness, they are also about the hope for love and acceptance(p.13). Past researchers have related infidelity exclusively to extramarital sexual intercourse, but through the research available today other acts of betrayal are being considered, like intimate emotional infidelity, online infidelity and secret relationships (Zola, 2007). Objectives of the Study and Research Question I am interested in researching males ideas and beliefs regarding infidelity, with particular emphasis on the perceived perception of what are the reasons that men give for other mens infidelity. Using data collected through opportunistic sampling, my study focuses on males who are in a committed relationship and who presumably have never cheated, even though they were never asked if they ever cheated, and examine the reasons why they think other men cheat. During the interviews an in-depth understanding of mens infidelity and the causes leading to it were explained. The following research question will be addressed: What are the perceived reasons men give for other mens infidelity? Chapters Overview The aim of this chapter was to present a brief overview on the literature available on the topic as well as to provide an outline of the rationale for choosing this topic, the objectives and the research question of this study. Chapter 2 will present the respective literature about infidelity, in particular that concerning male infidelity. Chapter 3 will provide a detailed explanation about the methodology used for this study. Chapter 4 will provide the results of this study, comparing them to the literature from previous research. In the final chapter I will present the studys limitations, its implications and will also make some recommendations for future research. Chapter 2 Literature Review This chapter assesses the theoretical perspectives behind the motivations that lead men towards unfaithful behaviour. It is fundamental to have an appropriate definition of what infidelity means, as it gives a better understanding about the reasons behind infidelity. Infidelity used to be defined as extramarital sexual involvement, but nowadays the meaning is more inclusive. A more appropriate definition of infidelity proposed by Zola (2007) is (1) an act of an emotional and/or physical betrayal characterized by behaviour that is not sanctioned by the other partner; and (2) that has contributed to considerable, on-going, emotional anguish in the non-offending partner (p.26). Biological Perspective Research has been carried out to see whether any correlation between an individuals genetic component and infidelity exists. It was found that men with relatively high levels of testosterone show prolonged interest in sexual activity outside their current committed relationship, also tending to have a greater number of sex partners and a higher number of extra-marital affairs (OConnor, Daniel, Feinberg, 2011, p. 65). With respect to women, levels of testosterone during the menstrual cycle indicate an increased possibility in engaging in infidelity (Welling et al., 2007 as cited in OConnor et al.). Moreover, Garcia et al. (2010) found that individuals with genetic variation of the dopamine D4, called 7R +, were more prone to infidelity or promiscuity. In their research, 50% of the participants with 7R + reported being unfaithful when compared with 22% of participants who did not exhibit this genetic variation. Garcia further notes that his findings are not cause-effect related, since people without these genetic variations can also commit infidelity. In another study conducted by Cherkas, Oelsner, Mak, Valdes Spector (2004) on female twins about the correlation between genetic influence and infidelity, demonstrated that heritability in sexual infidelity exists (41%). Even though biological factors were proven to be relatively correlative with infidelity, social and culture influences should still not be ignored as they influence attitudes towards infidelity (Cherkas et al.). Evolutionary Perspective Evolutionary theorists have argued that infidelity has always existed in one form or another among human couples and research has addressed a growing number of issues surrounding this phenomenon (Fricker, 2006). For both females and males, reproduction and sexuality are the driving force for mate selection and relationship formation, most of the time acting unconsciously within the person (Hill, 2008). According to Trivers, (1972, as cited in Buss, 1995), females have evolved to be more selective in their choice of mating partners since they are the ones who invest more in their offspring, so they exert greater selection pressure. In fact women are less likely to sleep around (Buss, 1998) while males evolve to be more competitive with same sex members to protect themselves from cuckoldry  [1]  costs (Kuhle, Smedley Schmitt, 2009). Women are oriented towards long-term relationships while men prefer short-term relationships, showing less selection strictness (Buss Schmit, 1993). This lack of austerity allows men to have a wider range of sexual partners, therefore having higher availability alternatives. In a study conducted by Stone, Shackelford and Busss (2007), results demonstrated that when there are more females in a society, males lower their standard to further their offspring. In fact, according to evolutionary theory, males are more likely to cheat for reproductive success while woman cheat to find a superior mate. Furthermore, Drigotas and Barta (2001) suggest that if one of the partners does not perceive the relationship as rewarding, they tend to leave the dyad and move elsewhere. Mating strategies are time consuming, so after successfully attracting a mate, males adopt different retaining strategies (Kuhle et al., 2009). Since males cannot be sure of their paternity (Buss 2000 as cited in Sabini Silver 2005), they might be afraid to raise a child who is not biologically theirs (Hughes, Harrison Gallup, 2004) so males might be endowed by genes that make them react to sexual infidelity. Moreover, because maternity is always certain, females do not perceive sexual infidelity as a threat because they are not going to invest in an offspring which is not biologically theirs. It is the emotional engagement with another female which however triggers jealousy in women, as they fear abandonment (Sabini Silver). Social and Cultural Context According to Brown (1991) an increase in affairs has to do with moral breakdowns in our society (p.9). Others blame aspects like opportunity, physical separation (Glass Wight, 1992), sexual liberalization and the changes that came along with womens emancipation. Human behaviour is shaped through socio-cultural factors, hence to understand better the reasons behind infidelity one should also consider outside influences (Brown). With the economic changes that have taken place in recent decades, families have faced drastic changes in their daily lives. Couples used to work together on farms, but today both work long hours having little time for each other (Brown, 1991). Social context gives more opportunity to engage in infidelity. The workplace gives the possibility to get closer to someone else (Treas Giesen, 2000; Wiggins Lederer, 1984). Glass states that 46% of unfaithful wives and 62% of unfaithful husbands who visited her clinic had an affair with someone who they met at work (Brown). Moreover jobs that require personal contact put the person more at risk of infidelity (Treas Giesen). Biosocial theory is an alternative to the evolutionary theory proposed by Wood and Eagly (2002) to explain infidelity. Women and men engage in different behaviours according to the social roles associated with their gender. These roles are attributed to physical differences. Costs and benefits from choosing a particular mate depend on social roles, and will be socially transmitted between cultures. Since males are unable to reproduce this gives them greater power over women. According to Charles, (2002 as cited in Agius, 2010), monogamous relationships are unhealthy because they block the natural instinct of humans (p. 16). Schmookler Bursiks (2007) research concluded that males perceive monogamy as a sacrifice, whereas females perceive it as relationship enhancing. Nowadays a lot of couples are opting for cohabitation instead of marriage, but according to Dolcini et al. (1993 as cited in Treas Giesen, 2000) the prevalence of infidelity amongst cohabiting couples is higher than in marriages since they invest less in their union and face less costs when having to leave the relationship. Attachment Theory Attachment theory is another study of evolutionary theory to explain emotions children experience when separated from their primary caregiver (Donovan, 2010; Hill, 2008). Bowlby, found that the first few years of a parent-child relationship are decisive in developing emotional attachment, this resulting from a secure and comfort state with their caregivers. Through the emotional attachment formed with their caregivers, children develop what Ainsworth and colleagues (1978, as cited in Hill) called internal working models that will help them to understand relationships and react to them emotionally throughout life (p. 285). Furthermore, the attachment style with the caregiver will determine an individuals personality component and will influence also future relationships (Donovan). Hazan and Shaver (1987) focused on the parent-child relationship and the effect on romantic and sexual relationships during adolescence and adulthood. They found that those who experienced a secure attachment with their parents tend to experience satisfying committed relationships which are stable and durable. On the other hand, those with an anxious-ambivalent personality style enter romantic relationships more quickly but are also prone to ending them quickly. Individuals who experienced an avoidant attachment style are more likely to avoid any involvement in a romantic relationship. Bartholomew and Horowitz (1991, as cited in Hill 2008) proposed a fourth attachment style, dismissing attachment and this with reference to individuals who prefer to be more independent and not having to rely on others. According to the adult attachment theory, the type of emotional bond experienced with the caregiver is expected to occur when it comes to emotional bonding between adults (Fricker, 2006). Bogaert and Sadavas (2002, as cited in Hill, 2008)) study on young adults found that individuals who score higher on anxious attachment are more likely to engage in infidelity (especially for women). Similarly, in Allen et al. (2008) study, men with dismissive attachment styles and women with preoccupied attachment style tend to have a large number of partners outside their primary relationship. Moreover, Blow and Hartnett (2005) found that women who have preoccupied attachment style and men who have a fearful attachment style are more likely to cheat. Parental- investment model According to Trivers (1972, as cited in Buss, 1998): Parental investment can be defined as any time, energy, or, effort expended to aid the survival and reproduction of one offspring at the expense of other forms of investment, such as effort devoted to intrasexual competition. (p. 21) Since parental investment can be costly, females need to be selective with whom to engage sexually. Sex differences in reproduction leads to different fitness strategies. For males, mating with different women puts them at a reproduction advantage to safeguard their genes and pass them on to the next generation. On the other hand, women are limited in reproduction, hence they need to protect themselves and their offspring by choosing a mate with high genetic qualities (Hughes et al., 2004). In fact, women are more attracted to males who possess good genes and who are caring and ready to commit resources for their offspring (Hill, 2008). Women also tend to give greater importance to mates who are economically stable and socially dominant. Conversely, men prefer younger, healthy, and more physically attractive women (Yeniceri Kokdemir, 2006). As a matter of fact, males mostly value the waist-to-hip ratio and the body mass index, as these are associated with youthfulness and attractive women, thought to be indicators of health and capacity to reproduce (Hill, p.362). In fact women are more intimidated by opponents who are more physically attractive, while men are more threatened by rivals who have strong social status and stability (Hill). Relationship Infidelity and Personality Traits In a study carried out amongst fifty-two nations, using the Big Five personality traits, a relationship is evident between different personality traits and relationship infidelity (Schmitt, 2004). Four traits appear to be related to sexual behaviour; extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness and neuroticism. Exhibiting low levels of agreeableness and conscientiousness is associated with infidelity and impulsive sensation- seeking (Orzeck Lung, 2005; Schmitt). Barta and Kiene (2005; as cited in Blow Kelley, 2005; Wilson et al., 2011), found that attitudes toward uncommitted sexual relationships are good predictors of infidelity, such that people who have a favourable attitude towards infidelity are more likely to cheat. Additionally, those who report being unfaithful in romantic relationships tend to be uncooperative and lack trust (i.e. disagreeable), disorganized and unreliable (i.e. unconscientiously) which is likely to lead to infidelity during the first four years of marriage (Orzeck Lung, 2005; Schmitt, 2004). On the other hand, a Machiavellian personality, psychoticism and psychopathy which are rooted in low agreeableness and low conscientiousness are strong predictors of high sensation seeking (Schmitt). Eysenck (1976, as cited in Schmitt, 2004) further found that extroverts tend to have multiple partners, are more sexually active and engage in sexual intercourse at a young age. They are more likely to be unfaithful because of high libido or due to the need to raise their habitually low levels of cortical arousal to a more comfortable level (p. 303) in order to overcome boredom (Orzeck Lung, 2005). Since they are always in need of new stimulation, they lack commitment investment (Drigotas et al., 1999). According to Buss and Shackelford (1997 as cited in Orzeck Lung, 2005) couples who have similar personalities are more likely to be satisfied with their relationship, while dissimilar personality characteristics could decrease satisfaction, leading to infidelity. Motivations for Infidelity Many researchers have examined the reasons for extra relationship involvements. According to Glass and Wright (1992 as cited in Boekhout et al., 1999), there are four classes of infidelity justifications, these being sexual, emotional, love (which entails falling in love and receiving attention), and extrinsic motivations. Even though men and women give similar justifications for their betrayal, research has shown that some sex differences do exist. For women, relationship dissatisfaction is a higher contributor to infidelity, while for men factors like sexual incompatibility and lack of communication lead to infidelity (Roscoe, Cavanaugh, Kennedy, 1988). Dissatisfaction with Primary Relationship People in committed relationships expect certain needs to be fulfilled by their partners (Boekhout et al., 1999). When these needs are lacking, they seek them outside the primary relationship. The investment theory (Rusbult, 1983) explains that cheaters perceive themselves as being more pleasing, exploited and taken advantage of, so they would look for appreciation in extra relationship involvement. Conversely, when they feel that their needs are being met they tend to be faithful (Orzech Lung, 2005). Research shows that relationship dissatisfaction is a high contributor to infidelity (Blow Kelley, 2005; Brown, 1991; Glass Wright, 1985). Furthermore, dissatisfaction with a primary relationship increases the desire for extramarital relationships, whereas Cuber and Haroff (1965, as cited in Glass Wright, 1977) state that affairs are not exclusive to bad marriages but may also occur in good marriages. Among those that engage in extramarital sex, women tend to be more dissatisfied with their relationship than men (Blow Kelley, 2005; Brown, 1991). For women, the primary motivator to extramarital sex is emotional dissatisfaction (Glass Wright, 1985) while for men it is related to sexual dissatisfaction (Brown). Poor communication and unresolved marital problems are also related to infidelity (Brown). Ego Bolstering Pittman (1989 as cited in Brown, 1991) assigns complete responsibility for an affair to the infidel and views the partner as a victim (p.21). Men are likely to commit extramarital sex due to low levels of self-esteem, hence exhibiting feelings of insecurity. In fact, Eaves and Robertson- Smith (2004) found that the lower a mans self- esteem is, the most likely he will be unfaithful. In a relationship where men perceive their masculinity as being threatened, they tend to engage in an affair (Chircop, 2008). Moreover anger and revenge could be a motivator leading to unfaithful relationships. In this case, the choice to hurt back a partner would be a conscious one (Cachia, 2007). Education Studies in evaluating whether a correlation between education and infidelity exist or not vary. Treas and Giesen (2000) acknowledge that individuals who are highly educated tend to be more permissive towards sexual values and infidelities (Blow Hartnett, 2005). In a study conducted by Atkins et al. (2001 as cited in Blow Hartnett) graduate participants were 1.75 times higher to engage in extramarital relationships than those with a lower education. These researchers also state that this finding is significant amongst individuals who are divorced. Religious Affiliation The great influence of Puritan values on American and later on European cultures contributed to less tolerance towards sexual betrayal as it came to be viewed as morally unacceptable (Scheinkman, 2005, as cited in Zola, 2007). Even though some researchers like Blumstein Schwartz, (1983, as cited in Blow Hartnett, 2005) state that there is no correlation between attendance at religious services and infidelity, other studies report that attendance at religious services leads to lower rates of infidelity (Treas Giesen, 2000). Liu (2000) suggests that it might be the case that couples who attend religious services might be exposed more to the condemning messages of extramarital affairs. Moreover, their social network might be tighter, hence allowing them more to adhere to social norms (Blow Hartnett). In a study conducted by Amato and Previti (2003, as cited in Allen et al., 2008), religiosity played a great role in whether to engage in infidelity or not. In fact higher religiosity c an inhibit infidelity due to mechanisms such as less permissiveness attitudes (p. 244). In another study, Azzopardi (2011) found that couples who practice religion are more likely to be faithful, while low religiosity is correlated with infidelity. Amongst the Maltese society, Catholicism is highly viewed and great respect for the doctrines stance of low-tolerance towards infidelity still exists. However, things have changed since Tabones study, which dates back to 1987, where the majority of his sample participants declared that they would not be unfaithful because it is against Gods Commandments (as cited in Cachia, 2007, p.6). More recently, Abela, (2000) has stated that in todays society, the Christian religion has little influence on affairs. Even though religion might not affect infidelity, still it can prevent infidelity to some extent. Types of Affairs Brown (1991) recognizes that different types of affairs exist; in fact she identifies five. The conflict avoidance affair takes place when individuals are afraid of speaking up when they do not agree with their partner because they want to be seen as good persons and fear being abandoned. Others seek an affair because they are afraid of getting intimate with someone. This type of affair is known as the intimacy avoidance affair. Sexual addiction affairs exist among men who indulge themselves in sexual activity to numb inner pain. In the case of the split self affair, both the spouse and the adulterer put the needs of others in front of theirs. Contrary to the sexual addict affair, here it is the marriage that feels empty and not the individual. Usually the affair is passionate, and serious. The last type of affair is the exist affair. Brown, describes these individuals as conflict avoiders at heart (p.41). Both partners are aware that their marriage has finished, but still the adulte rer justifies his action to leave the marriage for the affair instead. Gender Differences and Attitudes A lot of research has been carried out to identify the incidence rate of affairs between males and females. However a simple conclusion cannot be reached because it depends on age, primary relationship type and the type of extra dyadic relationship (Hill, 2008). Even though the majority of married couples expect a monogamous relationship and condemn extra dyadic relationships (Allen et al., 2008), still between 20% to 40% of all couples at one point in their life, engage in infidelity (Peluso Spina, 2008). Several authors have concluded that men engage more in unfaithful relationships and are more permissive about extra-dyadic sex than women (Hill, 2008; Treas Giesen, 2000). However, Margie Scarf (1987 as cited in Brown 1991) points out that 55% of married men and 45% of married women engage in unfaithful relationships. Due to the increasing number of women who work, opportunity to engage in infidelity is increasing as well (Larson, 1988 as cited by Brown). Besides, Atwater (1982, as cited in Brown) explains that there is a higher rate in affair participation amongst young women than men. Larson (1988 as cited in Brown) still recognizes that there is a gender difference when it comes to affairs because females consider infidelity to be more serious than males. In a local context, Cachia (2007) carried out a study to highlight both differences and similarities in infidelity amongst males and females. Results revealed that both sexes considered infidelity to be wrong yet still engaged in it. Another study was conducted by Agius (2010) to investigate if there are any sex differences when it comes to infidelity. Even in this study, results showed no significant difference between genders when it comes to being unfaithful. Glass and Wright (1977) recognised that there is a relation between attitudes toward infidelity and behaviour, especially for men. More favourable attitudes towards infidelity are associated with greater predictions towards the likelihood of engaging in sexual infidelity (Treas Giesen, 2000; Wilson et al., 2011). Blow Hartnett (2005) assert that attitudes toward infidelity may also depend on prior sexual experience. Premarital sexual experiences are correlated with extramarital affairs; in fact, Atwater (1982 as cited in Brown 1991) states that the more experience an individual has the greatest the likelihood of him being unfaithful. Types of Infidelity An affair can be sexual, emotional or both (Brown, 1991). Sexual infidelity refers to sexual activity with someone else outside the primary relationship while emotional infidelity refers to the attention and romantic love channelled towards someone else besides the long-term partner (Shackelford, LeBlanc Drass, 2000). Men perceive sexual infidelity as being more distressful and unacceptable, whereas women are more upset when it comes to emotional infidelity. This difference is explained by the evolutionary perspective model because it reflects the challenges our ancestors faced in reproduction (Treger Sprecher, 2011). Buss and his colleagues (1992, as cited in Boekhout et al., 1999) found that 60% of men will be more distressed with sexual infidelity, whereas 83% of women are more distressed with emotional infidelity. Women believe that men engage in sexual activity without any emotional attachment, so when they fall in love women perceive this type of affair as more distressful. On the other hand, men know that women may fall in love without engaging in sex and that they will have sex only with the one they love, so they perceive sexual infidelity as more distressful (Treger Sprecher). Men mostly view extra dyadic relationships as having no consequences on committed relationships since they are more like

“Chicago” by Carl Sandburg Essay

In The Poem â€Å"Chicago†, the poet Carl Sandburg uses personification, diction, and imagery to show his love and pride for his home city of Chicago. In the first stanza â€Å"HOG Butcher for the World, / Tool Maker, Stacker of Wheat, / Player with Railroads and the Nation’s Freight Handler; / Stormy, husky, brawling, / City of the Big Shoulders:†(1-5), Sandburg uses personification to tell the reader how important his city is to the rest of the nation by listing the important jobs done there. The last two lines of the first stanza also allude to the power of Chicago. Another strong element used by Sandburg is diction. The words Sandburg uses to express his feelings about Chicago are powerful and emotional. Sanburg uses strong diction in the second stanza, â€Å"They tell me you are wicked†¦/And they tell me you are crooked†¦/And they tell me you are brutal†(6-8). In theses lines. Words like â€Å"brutal†, â€Å"crooked†, and â€Å"wicked† could have all easily been replaced with simpler less emotion evoking words like â€Å"bad†, but Sandburg wants the reader to feel a stronger connection to the poem and to Chicago its self. Sandburg also uses imagery in this poem to convey his feelings for Chicago. â€Å"Under the smoke, dust all over his mouth, laughing with / white teeth, (20).this is a power full image of someone who is dirty, maybe because of the hardships they have been through, yet is still smiling, happily and showing that they still have some clean untouched part of them selves left inside. Carl Sandburg uses Personification, imagery, and diction in â€Å"Chicago† to give people who doubt his city’s strength his idea of Chicago.

Grade Level Or Perform Basic Math Operations - 1093 Words

In today’s society, you often see so many children lacking the ability to read on grade level or perform basic math operations, but can tell you how to operate any form of modern technology. I noticed so many high school students facing the same issues so it propelled me to dive deep into some possible reasoning as to why it is a recurring problem. I decided to pick an elementary school that had been around for at least 15+ years and had seen both bad and good years. In other words, a school that had passing and failing grades from the state since they had been around. I chose S. A. Hull Elementary because of the urban neighborhood, the academic history, and the fact that they have a high percentage of â€Å"economically disadvantaged†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦show more content†¦S.A. Hull was the only elementary school in the area that was a C. She began to explain her aggravation with everything that was happening with schools and students transferring, making comments about how par ents don t want their students at F schools so they transfer to the better schools. Ms Johnson stated, out of frustration, how can we remain a C school when F students transfer? How is that possible? After School, a couple of other teachers had a discussion about how frustrating teaching could be and that you truly have to be gifted to be a teacher. It s a multitude of roles being a teacher, mother, counselor, chef, doctor and so many other jobs. Students played outside for about 20 minutes when I arrived. They were excited to see me and gathered around me as I walked around. I ended up talking with a group of the girls and one of them stood out to me from the beginning of this analysis. The girl, Student B, seemed to be very outspoken yet smart and extremely robust to be so young. I saw a lot of the young girl in myself, perhaps the reason I was so drawn to her. I decided to have a talk with her and we discussed school and boys and things that she does and doesn t like. We talked about family and how she wishes to see her dad came about. Her story was a complete heartbreak. She had been through so much, at just 7 years old. I, in a way, admired her because she went on like nothing was ever a problem. She was so excited to talk to

Notes On Computer Data System - 887 Words

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The hierarchy tree for the documents contains folders that are only used for structuring purposes and do not contain documents. It also contains folders in which documents are displayed: †¢ Folder for the system alias If the documents are stored on the BW server, this folder is unnecessary. †¢ Folder for master data (folder without documents) †¢ Folder for specific master data, such as material or cost center (folder without documents) †¢ Folder for specific master data (folder without documents)Show MoreRelatedApplication Of A Macbook Pro And Os X1446 Words   |  6 PagesData, Information, and Organizational Knowledge is this week’s assignment and after completing the required reading/videos introducing the notion of computer basics; I have to answer a few questions for the case study. So let’s get down to business and learn computer basics. So what operating system does my computer use? 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Rise of Photography in the World of Art Essay - 1431 Words

The rise of photography began in the early 1830’s in France, and wasn’t very popular as most artists preferred a paintbrush and canvas to a new contraption that wasn’t popular and wasn’t manufactured locally or globally yet and that was fairly expensive to try to produce, and since this time it has been debated if photography deserves its place in the art world. Through the late 1800’s and the early 1900’s it grew in popularity and throughout time photography went from being badly received to a new form of art though people around the world still debate if it is indeed â€Å"art†. Photography has a long history from the first camera obscura in the 18th century to the latest Nikon or Canon camera in the 21st century. Photography is traced†¦show more content†¦In the United States there was a less expensive and more durable portable camera for a photographer to use to take sitting portraits of families being developed. During this time many people were inventing products for cameras and for photographers who needed those products, so as each year went on the cameras had started to be better produced and more durable and less expensive with more training and education. Education was a huge part as well in the making of a camera, and the usage of a camera, people needed trained photographers so schools had started to have classes on photography. The first colour photograph2 was produced in 1861 by James Clark Maxwell, by using primary colours and using those to create a colour photograph during the editing process. This was a huge milestone in photography and instead of having a black and white photograph, we now were on the way to creating colour photography. It may not have been mass-produced until the later 1900’s but it was still a huge first step towards colour photography. 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